Error Correction

Error Correction 1

When it comes to error correction we are dealing with one individual's reaction to a student's piece of writing or utterance. This inevitably means that there will be some disagreement among teachers about what, when, and how to correct. Therefore the aim of this article is not to be prescriptive, but to highlight some key areas. It is in 2 parts. In the first part we look at ...

• Attitudes to error correction
• Categorising errors
• A model for correcting writing
• The role of planning
• Practical techniques / ideas for correcting writing

Attitudes to Error Correction
Attitudes to error correction vary not only among teachers but also among students. A teacher may be influenced by:

• The fact that English is their second language and great emphasis was placed on correctness at their teacher training college.
• The fact that as a native speaker they have never had to worry about their English.
• A particular methodology / approach. In the 1960s a teacher using Audiolingualism would have adopted a behaviourist approach to error. More recently a teacher following the Natural Approach (influenced by second language acquisition theory) would have adopted a wholly different approach. Other methodologies / approaches, such as Suggestopaedia and Total Physical Response, highlight the psychological effects of error correction on students.

As for students, we not only have to consider their age but also their approach to learning. Some students are risk-takers, while others will only say something if they are sure it is correct. While being a risk-taker is generally positive as it leads to greater fluency, some students only seem to be concerned with fluency at the expense of accuracy. The same can be true when it comes to writing. Some students take an eternity to produce a piece of writing as they are constantly rubbing out what they have written while at the opposite extreme the writing is done as fast as possible without any planning or editing.

Categorising errors
We can categorise an error by the reason for its production or by its linguistic type.

• What's the reason for the error?
• It is the result of a random guess (pre-systematic).
• It was produced while testing out hypotheses (systematic).
• It is a slip of the tongue, a lapse, a mistake (caused by carelessness, fatigue etc.) (post-systematic).

To be sure about the type of error produced by a student we need to know where the student's interlanguage is (the language used by a student in the process of learning a second language).

• What type is it?
  We can classify errors simply as productive (spoken or written) or receptive (faulty understanding). Alternatively we can use the following:
• A lexical error - vocabulary
• A phonological error - pronunciation
• A syntactic error- grammar
• An interpretive error - misunderstanding of a speaker's intention or meaning
• A pragmatic error - failure to apply the rules of conversation

A model for Correcting Writing
When writing we do not have the chance to rephrase or clarify what we are saying. Our message must be clear the first time. Written errors are also less tolerated than spoken errors outside the classroom.
Look at this model for correcting written work and evaluate it for your teaching situation.

• 1. Comprehensibility
• Can you understand the output?
• Are there areas of incoherence?
• Do these affect the overall message?
• Does communication break down?
• 2. Task
• Has the student addressed the task?
• 3. Syntax and Lexis
• Are they appropriate to the task?
• Are they accurate?

The role of planning
Giving students time to plan not only results in a wider range of language being used, it also helps students to avoid some of the following:

• Inappropriate layout
• No paragraphs
• Lack of cohesion
• Inappropriate style

Whichever style of plan (linear notes or a mind map) these questions will help students to plan their writing:

• What am I going to write? (An informal letter etc.)
• What layout do I need?
• What information am I going to include?
• How many paragraphs do I need?
• What grammar / vocabulary am I going to use?
• What linking words ( because, and etc.) am I going to use?

Practical techniques / ideas for correcting writing

• Training students to edit
  Even though they have invested time in doing a writing task, students often don't spend a few more minutes checking their writing. The following activities not only help to develop students' editing skills in a fun way, but also enable the teacher to focus on key errors without individual students losing face.
• Grammar auctions: (From Grammar Games by M.Rinvolucri CUP) Students receive a number of sentences taken from their written work. Some are correct, some wrong. Students in groups have to try to buy the correct ones in the auction. They have a limited amount of money. The team with the most correct sentences wins.
• Mistakes mazes: (From Correction by Bartram and Walton Thomson Heinle). Students have a list of sentences. Their route through a maze depends on whether the sentences are right or wrong. They follow white arrows for correct sentences and black ones for incorrect ones. If they have identified all the sentences correctly they escape, if not they have to retrace their steps and find out where they went wrong.
• Correction techniques
  It can be difficult to decide on what and how much to correct in a student's piece of writing. Students can develop a negative attitude towards writing because their teacher corrects all their errors or if the teacher only corrects a few, they might feel that the teacher hasn't spent sufficient time looking at their work. Evaluate the following techniques and decide which would be appropriate for your teaching situation.Underline inappropriate language in a piece of writing using a specific colour.
• Using a different colour from above, underline examples of appropriate language.
• Correct errors by writing the correct forms in their place.
• Use codes in the margin to identify the type of error(s), for example, VOC = a lexical error. Students have to identify the error(s) and if possible make a correction.
• Alternatively put crosses in the margin for the number of errors in each line. Students then try to identify the errors and make corrections.
• Put students into pairs / groups. They correct each other's work using one or more of the techniques above.
• From time to time give students an individual breakdown of recurring problems in their written work.

Error Correction 2

As mentioned in Error Correction 1, students can differ greatly in their attitude to producing spoken English. Some are only interested in developing their fluency at the expense of accuracy while others are so focused on accuracy that they have no fluency. While these are clearly extremes, it is not unusual to find students like this in a typical class. In Error Correction 2 we look at...

• A basic approach to improving fluency and accuracy
• Dictogloss - A way of raising students' awareness of their inter-language
• Criteria for dealing with spoken errors
• Practical techniques for correcting spoken errors
• Further reading

A basic approach to improving fluency and accuracy

In contrast to writing, students have very little processing time when it comes to speaking, so it is hardly surprising that the following may occur.

• Students don't experiment with new language presented by the teacher.
• At lower levels students' output is mostly lexical.
• The more accuracy-focused students test the patience of the listener in the time they take to say something.
• The speech of some very fluent students is littered with errors and therefore may have a negative effect on the listener.

Just as with writing we can help students to improve their accuracy and fluency. Teachers can help students improve their fluency by giving guided preparation time for a task. Students receive specific guidance in choosing appropriate language as well as rehearsal time. Task-based learning research shows that this leads to a greater range of language being used.

When it comes to accuracy, research into second language acquisition says that the first stage of improving accuracy is awareness-raising. Namely, raising students' awareness of gaps in their inter-language. You can do this by using a recording of teachers / higher level students performing the same task that your students have done. Use awareness-raising exercises to focus on specific linguistic areas in the recording.

Dictogloss - A way of raising students' awareness of their inter-language
Dictogloss (see 'Grammar Dictation' by R.Wajnryb OUP) is a very effective technique for doing this. After an introduction to the subject and some pre-teaching of essential lexis, students are read a text twice. The first time they listen to get the gist of the text. The second time they have to note down the key words. Then, in groups they work together to produce a version of the text. The emphasis is on successfully communicating the main points using their English. If they can reproduce the original text, that is great, but it is not essential. The teacher and groups then correct their texts and compare them with the original. The aim is to make students aware of the gaps in their inter-language.

Criteria for dealing with Spoken Errors
In 'Correction' by M.Bartram and R.Walton present these questions as a guide to deciding whether to let an error go or not. Which do you consider to be the most important?

1. Does the mistake affect communication?
2. Are we concentrating on accuracy at the moment?
3. Is it really wrong? Or is it my imagination?
4. Why did the student make the mistake?
5. Is it the first time the student has spoken for a long time?
6. Could the student react badly to my correction?
7. Have they met this language point in the current lesson?
8. Is it something the students have already met?
9. Is this a mistake that several students are making?
10. Would the mistake irritate someone?
11. What time is it?
12. What day is it?
13. What's the weather like?

Practical techniques / ideas for correcting spoken English

• On-the-spot correction techniques.
  These are used for dealing with errors as they occur.
• Using fingers
  For example, to highlight an incorrect form or to indicate a word order mistake.
• Gestures
  For example, using hand gestures to indicate the use of the wrong tense.
• Mouthing
  This is useful with pronunciation errors. The teacher mouths the correct pronunciation without making a sound. For example, when an individual sound is mispronounced or when the word stress is wrong. Of course it can also be used to correct other spoken errors.
• Reformulation
  For example:
  Student: I went in Scotland
  Teacher: Oh really, you went to Scotland, did you?
• Delayed Correction techniques - For example, after a communication activity.
• Noting down errors
  Either on an individual basis i.e. focusing on each student's mistakes or for the class as a whole. 'Hot cards', as Bartram and Walton call individual notes, can be used to focus on recurring mistakes. The student then has a written suggestion of what to work on.
• Recording
  In addition to recording students (individually, in pairs etc.) during a speaking task to make them aware of errors that affect communication we can use a technique from Community Language Learning. Students sit in a circle with a tape recorder in the centre. In monolingual classes they check with the teacher, who is bilingual, about how to say something in English, then rehearse it and record it. At the end of the lesson they listen back to the tape and can focus on specific utterances etc. With higher level multilingual classes students take part in a discussion which they have prepared for in advance. When they have something to say they record themselves and then pause the tape. Just as with monolingual classes they can use the teacher as a linguistic resource. At the end of the discussion students analyse their performance with the teacher. The focus is on improving the quality of what they say and expanding their inter-language. Although this form of discussion may seem a bit artificial it has two main advantages:
• Students pay more attention to what they say as they are taking part in a kind of performance (it is being recorded)
• Students not only become more aware of gaps in their spoken English but also can see how their spoken English is improving.